Thursday, April 23. 2009
Ogg
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For learning how to create video or audio files for Wikipedia and its sister projects, check Wikipedia:Creation and usage of media files
For other uses, see Ogg (disambiguation).
Ogg
Filename extension
.ogv, .oga, .ogx, .ogg
Internet media type
video/ogg, audio/ogg, application/ogg
Magic number
OggS
Developed by
Xiph.Org Foundation
Type of format
Container format
Container for
Vorbis, Theora, Speex, FLAC, Dirac, and others.
Ogg is a free, open standard container format maintained by the Xiph.Org Foundation. The creators of the Ogg format claim that it is unrestricted by software patents and is designed to provide for efficient streaming and manipulation of high quality digital multimedia.
The name 鎱済g refers to the file format which can multiplex a number of separate independent free and open source codecs for audio, video, text (such as subtitles), and metadata.
In the Ogg multimedia framework, Theora provides a lossy video layer, while the music-oriented Vorbis codec most commonly acts as the audio layer. The human speech compression codec Speex, lossless audio compression codec FLAC, and OggPCM may also act as audio layers.
The term 鎱済g is commonly used to refer to audio file format Ogg Vorbis, that is, Vorbis-encoded audio in the Ogg container. Previously, the .ogg file extension was used for any content distributed within Ogg, but as of 2007, the Xiph.Org Foundation requests that .ogg be used only for Vorbis due to backward compatibility concerns. The Xiph.Org Foundation decided to create a new set of file extensions and media types to describe different types of content such as .oga for audio only files, .ogv for video with or without sound (including Theora), and .ogx for applications.[1]
The current version of the Xiph.Org Foundation's reference implementation, released on 27 November 2005, is libogg 1.1.3.[2] Another version, libogg2[when?], is also available from the Xiph.Org Foundation's SVN repositories. Both software libraries are free software, released under the new BSD license.
Because the format is free, and its reference implementation is non-copylefted, Ogg's various codecs have been incorporated into a number of different free and proprietary media players, both commercial and non-commercial, as well as portable media players and GPS receivers from different manufacturers.
Contents
1 Naming
2 File format
3 Page structure
4 Metadata
5 History
6 Ogg codecs
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
//
Naming
It is sometimes assumed that the name Ogg comes from the character of Nanny Ogg in Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels. However, it derives from ogging, jargon from the computer game Netrek which came to mean doing something forcefully, possibly without consideration of the drain on future resources. At its inception, the Ogg project was thought to be somewhat ambitious given the power of the PC hardware of the time.[3]
File format
The Ogg bitstream format, spearheaded by the Xiph.Org Foundation, has been created as the framework of a larger initiative aimed at developing a set of components for the coding and decoding of multimedia content which are available free of charge and are freely re-implementable in software.
The format consists of chunks of data each called an Ogg Page. Each page begins with the "OggS" string to identify the file as Ogg format.
A serial number and page number in the page header identifies each page as part of a series of pages making up a bitstream. Multiple bitstreams may be multiplexed in the file where pages from each bitstream are ordered by the seek time of the contained data. Bitstreams may also be appended to existing files, a process known as chaining, to cause the bitstreams to be decoded in sequence.
A BSD-licensed library, called libogg, is available to encode and decode data from Ogg streams. Independent Ogg implementations are used in several projects such as RealPlayer and a set of DirectShow filters.
Page structure
The following is the field layout of an Ogg page header:
Capture pattern 32 bits
The capture pattern or sync code is a magic number used to ensure synchronisation when parsing Ogg files. Every page starts with the four byte sequence 'OggS'. This assists in resynchronising a parser in cases where data has been lost or is corrupted, and is a sanity check before commencing parsing the page structure.
Version 8 bits
This field indicates the version of the Ogg bitstream format, to allow for future expansion. It is currently mandated to be 0.
Header type 8 bits
This is an 8 bit field of flags, which indicates the type of page which follows. The rightmost or least significant bit is considered bit 0, with value 0x01, the next least...(and so on)
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Building products refers to the ready-made pieces that are fitted in different architectural and decorative hardware parts of a building. The list of building products excludes the building materials which are used to construct the building architecture and supporting fixtures like windows, doors, cabinets, etc. Building products do not make any part of a building, rather they support them and make them work.
Classification of Building ProductsBuilding products are classified on the basis of their use in different parts of building.
Bathroom Hardware: Bathroom hardware includes the products that are used in constructing and maintaining the bathroom appearance and decoration. Bathroom products includes faucets, showers, holders, tubs, shelves, mirrors, etc.
Door Hardware: All those products that are used either in door decoration, maintenance, or in any other function come under door hardware, such as door handles, fasteners, hinges, hooks, number plates, knockers, etc.
Furniture Hardware: Furniture hardware are those products that are used to support the furniture look, design and durability. Furniture hardware products include furniture frames, furniture legs, furniture arms, etc.
Safety & Security Hardware: Buildings, goods and their occupants needs protection from fire, intruders, and other external agents. Proper protection systems include fire safe security system, home monitoring, smoke detectors, locksets, window guards, etc.
Plumbing Hardware: Plumbing hardware products are used for supplying water throughout the building using hose, pipes and tubes. These hardware products ensure that water is supplied properly and continuously. Since water runs or remains all the time in these products, it is needed that the materials with which these products are highly corrosion resistant and ca withstand extreme temperatures. The most common materials are copper, aluminum, and steel.
Cabinet Hardware: The products that are used to make cabinets working come under cabinet hardware like cabinet fasteners, brackets, latches, hinges, pulls, locks, etc. Cabinet hardware are small components that make cabinets functional. These products are made of materials like plastics, metals and may be glasses.
Window Hardware: Window hardwares does not include window itself rather they are smaller components that are used to install, fix and protect windows, such as window extrusions, fasteners, handles, hinges, locks and many more.
Curtain Hardware: Curtain hardware includes products like hooks, curtain rings, curtain finials, etc. These products are used to hang curtain at doors, windows, verandas, etc. Curtain hooks and poles are used to handle and move the curtains. Curtain hardware products are made of varieties of materials including metals and plastics. Mostly aluminum and iron are used for making rings, hooks, rods and poles.
Sustainable Buildings & Green Products
Sustainable buildings are the demand of time. The amount of natural resources is very limited and the entire world should help to save these resources for coming generations, and so the building industry. The building industry consumes a lot of resources like water, energy during the construction and even after that for maintenance. These concerns and problems have led us to think about the concept of sustainable buildings. Sustainable buildings incorporates a number of strategies during design, construction, and operation of building projects. This concept can be achieved and applied by using more and more green building materials and products.
Which Building Products are Green?
Green building products are those, which are composed of renewable resources. These products are environmentally responsible because their impacts are considered over the entire life of the product.Products made with recycled, salvaged, or agricultural waste content.Products that avoid toxic or other emissionsProducts that conserve natural resourcesProducts that contribute to a safe healthy built environmentProducts that save energy and water
What are the Benefits of Green?
The use of green building products offer multitude of benefits to the building occupants as well as the owner.Use of green building products helps save energy.Helps reduce the maintenance/replacement costs over the life of the building.Lower costs associated with changing space configurations.Its use improve the health and productivity of occupants.It provides greater design flexibility.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Building materials
Green Building Education and Events
Green Building Associations
Green Product Listings
Categories: Environmental design
Hidden categories: Orphaned articles from February 2009 | All orphaned articles | Cleanup from March 2009 | All pages needing cleanup(and so on)
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Beyond Vaudeville was a public access television show on Time Warner Cable in New York City that ran from 1986 to 1996. The show was hosted by Frank Hope with co-host David Greene and featured regular appearances by Joey the Monkey. Guests included various celebrities and New York City eccentrics. The show eventually made the move to network TV as Oddville, MTV. Beyond Vaudeville Episode List 1) Mason Reese, Underdog dancer Suzanne Muldowney2) Al Lewis, poet Gretchen Weiner3) Omer Travers (broke into Yoko Ono's apartment), poet Chairman Steve, comedy team Book n Martino4) Psychic Frederick Davies, singer-songwriter Stryker5) Poet Gretchen Weiner, Joey the Monkey, Body By Bob6) Frank Nastasi (White Fang on Soupy Sales Show)7) Tuli Kupferberg of The Fugs, poet Chairman Steve8) Sammy Petrillo (Bela Lugosi Meets a Brooklyn Gorilla), former Burt Reynolds love interest Sen Tuna9) Quentin Crisp, mother-daughter comedy team Coco & Penny10) Joe Franklin errand boy Chris Deola, Kerima the bellydancer11)Joyce Randolph, comedian Jackie Jason Exit12)Singer Arthur Tracy, actor Marshall Efron13)Joe Franklin, artist Konstantin Bokov, elderly stripper Leola Harlow14)Lisa Sliwa, singer/songwriter Stryker, poet Chairman Steve15)Michael Musto, actor Joe Fleishaker, sci-fi collector Leslie Holcomb16)Memory expert Harry Lorrayne, Danny the Wonderpony, movie usher Martin Spund17)Billy Deans Knockouts18)Phoebe Legere, nudists, singer-songwriter Stryker, Underdog dancer Suzanne Muldowney19)Sci-Fi singer Roberta Rogow, Underdog dancer Suzanne Muldowney, singer Ada Love20)Brother Theodore, Uncle Sam impersonator Joe Erdelyi, sci-fi collector Leslie Holcomb21)Ed Herlihy, Lady Betty Aberlin, singer Starlady, T-shirt maker Martin Forro22)Joey Adams, Geoffrey Holder, Mr. Spoons23)Barry Williams, Wavy Gravy, Sukhreet Gabel24)Diver Dan, Rocky Horror Fan Club president Sal Piro, nosewhistler Jim Grosso, comic Al Lawrence25)Little Mike Anderson, musical saw player Moses Josiah, UFO expert26)Prof. Irwin Corey, Lady Betty Aberlin, female Elvis impersonator Dee Nack, driving instructor Bert Rapp, sci-fi collector Phil Depardo27)Judy Carne, Page Morton-Black, cryonicist Curtis Henderson, singer Al Boland28)Taylor Mead, Ethyl Eichelberger, Baird Jones, Jack the Fire, Frank's Home Movies29)Terry Sweeney, Flying Nun Fan Club president Sal Piro, Dracula dancer Suzanne Muldowney, sci-fi collector Leslie Holcomb30)Marie Wallace, Dave Van Ronk, UFO expert Ellie Crystal, sci-fi collector Leslie Holcomb31)Fred Willard, Underdog dancer Suzanne Muldowney, poet Wolf Pasmanik, comic Lou Bacala Cary32)Austin Pendleton, Irene the Gong Show Queen of Long Island, singer Ada Love, Raelians, Lady Betty Aberlin33)Singer John Wallowitch, singer Buddy Clayton34)NYC News anchor Sue Simmons, musical saw player Moses Josiah, actress Martha Greenhouse, psychic Morris Fonte35)Audrey Landers, David Peel, Alan Abel, Al Jolson impersonator Rich Curtis36)Warner Wolf, Tiny Tim, The Chordettes, comic Dave West37)Shirley Stoler, Ron Fazio, singer Tommy Ritaco, Robert Harmonica Stevens, Pieman Aron Kay38)Dan Lauria, Indian Elvis impersonator Nazar Sayegh, comedian Mildred Katz39)Lew "Clarabell" Anderson, Little Mike Anderson, singer Regis Philbin Jr., sci-fi expert Ronald Held, pogo-stick record holder Ashrita Furman40)Carel Struyken, singer Izzy Fertel, toy collectors Lance and Pat, sci-fi collector Leslie Holcomb41)World's Fastest Hot Dog Eater, poet Wolf Pasmanik, rapper Larry Love, sci-fi expert Ronald Held42)Fred Willard, singer Izzy Fertel, singer Ada Love, bellydancer Kerima, rappers, comedian Dave West, nose-whistler Jim Grosso43)Remo Pisani, singer Buddy Clayton, midget comic Ramon Pena Cartucho, Hawaiian singer Johnny Kai44)Bobby Boris Pickett, pierced guy, sci-fi expert Ronald Held, Klingon League of Assault Warriors, singer Austin Pendleton45)Tiny Tim, Benny Bell, tattoo experts Huggy Beark & Eek, Renaissance Man George Kayatta, Mr. Lucky & Stanley the Pig46)Sammy Petrillo, sci-fi expert Ron Held, comic Mikhail Bleyckman, bowling alley expert Bill Newman, horror expert John Link, sci-fi collector Leslie Holcomb47)Xmas Special. Wallowitch, William M. Gaines, Marilyn Monroe conspiracy expert M. Vinson Hayes, sci-fi collector Leslie Holcomb48)Bern Nadette Stanis, comic Mikhail Bleyckman, sci-fi singer Roberta Rogow, songwriter Stryker, Tiny Tim goes bowling49)Joey Faye, sci-fi expert Ronald Held, actor Joe Fleishaker, Marilyn Monroe conspiracy expert M. Vinson Hayes50)Pat Cooper, FDR Impersonator, Madonna impersonator Queerdonna, Trayman, Walt Paper51)Arthur Tracy, sci-fi expert Steve Maurer, Ice Bear Kingdom, Marilyn Monroe conspiracy expert M. Vinson Hayes, Trayman52)Underdog dancer Suzanne Muldowney, William Brown, singer Alan Chusid, Trayman53)Alison Steele, Chauncey Howell, anchor Marvin Scott, William Brown, Bagpipe player, comic Dave West54)Ron Palillo, William Brown, Trayman, Champ the Wonderdog, sci-fi expert Ronald Held55)Barton...(and so on)
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Seed beads
Seed beads are uniformly shaped, spheroidal beads ranging in size from under a millimetre to several millimetres. "Seed Bead" is a generic term for any small bead. Usually rounded in shape, seed beads are most commonly used for loom and off-loom bead weaving. They may be used for simple stringing, or as spacers between other beads in jewelry. Larger seed beads are used in various fiber crafts for embellishment, or crochet with fiber or wire.
Contents
1 Varieties
1.1 National origin
1.2 Colors and Finishes
1.3 Cylinder beads
1.4 Charlotte cut beads
1.5 Bugle Beads
2 Units of measure
3 Methods of packaging
3.1 Hanks
3.2 Weight
4 Confusing terminology
5 External links
//
Varieties
National origin
Most contemporary high-quality seed beeds are made in Japan or the Czech Republic. Japanese seed beads are generally more uniform in size, shape, and finish as well as having larger holes than Czech seed beads of the same size.
Some seed beads produced in France are available in historic "old-time" colors and are popular for use in repairing or replicating antiquities.
Lesser quality seed beads are produced in India, in People's Republic of China (PRC) and in Taiwan. Beads from these countries are less uniform in shape, hole size and finish. Dyed Chinese seed beads may transfer the dye to clothing or skin. Other Chinese seed beads have an external coating that will rub away to reveal a completely different color underneath.
Colors and Finishes
Transparent - the glass is see-through
Translucent - one can see light through the bead, although the light is diffused
Opaque - the solid color prevents light from passing through the bead
Matte - the bead is textured on a microscopic level to result in a matte finish
silver-lined - a silvery coating which reflects light is applied to the inside of the seed bead
copper-lined - a coppery coating which reflects a reddish light is applied to the inside of the seed bead
bronze-lined - a bronzy coating which reflects a brown light is applied to the inside of the seed bead
luster or lustre - a rainbow effect applied to the surface of the seed bead
AB or aurora borealis - also a rainbow effect applied to the surface of a seed bead
Formulas for different colors of glass are closely guarded. The recipe for a true black glass was lost during World War I, and modern black glass held to sunlight is a deep purple. Examples of true black glass are circulating in jewelry pieces made to commemorate the funeral of Queen Victoria.
Glass rods made with concentric layers of color or stripes of color can be used to make patterns of color in seed beads.
Seed bead machinery uses glass rods softened to a red heat, fed into a steel die stamp that forms the shape of the bead with a reciprocating needle that forms the hole. Manual and automatic machinery is in use in the Czech Republic. As the steel dies wear eventually, they are replaced.
Cylinder beads
During the last decade, a new shape of Japanese seed bead, the cylinder bead, has become increasingly popular. Unlike regular rounded seed beads, the cylinder beads are quite uniform in shape and size and have large holes for their size. Because the ends are flat instead of rounded, work created with cylinder beads has a flat, smooth texture. Rows and columns in weaving line up more uniformly, so pattern work comes out more accurate and even.
There are now 3 versions of cylinder beads:
Delica made by Miyuki. Delicas are currently made in four sizes: 15/0 (the smallest), 11/0 (the smallest), 10/0, and 8/0. Delica varieties include a "cut" Delica that reflects light from flat facets.
Treasures (formerly Antiques) made by Toho
Aiko - an all new, extremely precise bead made by Toho, introduced in 2005
Charlotte cut beads
Charlotte cuts are seed beads that have a single facet per bead to add sparkle. These are called "the most brilliant of all seed beads".
"Two-cut" beads are similar to "charlotte" seed beads, but are not technically the same. Two-cut beads have two flat faces rather than one.
Bugle Beads
Bugle beads have different lengths but all bugle beads will be longer than they are thick, creating a tubular shape.
Units of measure
The most popular seed bead size is 11/0 ("eleven-aught"), but sizes range from 24/0 (believed to be the smallest) to 6/0 or 5/0 (the largest). The term "aught" refers to how many beads can fit into a standard unit. The origin of the name is debatable.
Size numbers are also used. Unfortunately online vendors generally do not explain the correlation between size numbers and aughts and millimeters, which is therefore set out here.
aught size
mm diameter
beads per inch
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(Redirected from USB Human Interface Device class)
The USB human interface device class ("USB HID class") is a USB device class that describes human interface devices such as keyboards, mice, game controllers and alphanumeric display devices. The USB HID class is defined in a number of documents provided by the USB Implementers Forum's Device Working Group. The primary document used to describe the USB HID class is the Device Class Definition for HID 1.11. There are a number of other documents that describe more specific devices in the HID class.
Contents
1 Devices
1.1 Keyboards
1.2 Mice
1.3 Game controllers
1.4 Other devices
2 Drivers
3 Logical specifications
3.1 Functional characteristics
3.2 Reports
4 USB HID API
5 References
6 External links
//
Devices
The USB HID class describes devices used with nearly every modern computer. Many predefined functions exist in the USB HID class. These functions allow hardware manufacturers to design a product to USB HID class specifications and expect it to work with any software that also meets these specifications.
The same HID protocol is used unmodified in Bluetooth human interface devices. The Bluetooth profile specification only points readers to the USB HID documentation. In this sense those devices also belong to the USB HID class.
Keyboards
Keyboards are some of the most popular USB HID class devices. The USB HID class keyboard has replaced the PS/2 keyboard on most modern computer systems.[citation needed] The USB HID class keyboard is normally designed with an IN endpoint that communicates keystrokes to the computer and an OUT endpoint that communicates the status of the keyboard's LEDs from the computer to the keyboard. The PC 97 standard requires that a computer's BIOS must detect and work with USB HID class keyboards that are designed to be used during the boot process.
Mice
Computer mice are equally popular USB HID class devices. Much like keyboards, USB HID class mice have replaced PS/2 mice on many modern computer systems. USB HID mice can range from single-button simple devices to multi-button compound devices. Most modern operating systems ship with drivers for standard HID mice designs; mice with extended functionality require custom drivers from the manufacturer.
Game controllers
Modern game controllers and joysticks are often USB HID class devices. Unlike legacy game port devices, USB HID class game devices do not normally require proprietary drivers to function. Nearly all game devices will function using onboard drivers as long as the device is designed around the drivers and the USB HID class specifications.
Other devices
The USB HID class specifications allow for myriad other devices under the USB HID class. Some examples are automobile simulation controllers, exercise machines, telephony devices, audio controls, medical instrumentation, and even magic carpet simulators. Even uninterruptible power supplies declare themselves under this class, despite the fact they have no human interface at all. Any device can be a USB HID class device as long as a designer meets the USB HID class logical specifications. This is not to say that there is no need to ship drivers for these devices, nor that an operating system will immediately recognize the device. This only means that the device can declare itself under the human interface device class.
Drivers
One of the benefits of a well-defined specification like the USB HID class is the abundance of device drivers available in most modern operating systems. The USB HID class devices and their basic functions are defined in USB-IF documentation without any specific software in mind. Because of these generic descriptions, it is easy for operating system designers to include functioning drivers for devices such as keyboards, mice, and other generic human interface devices. The inclusion of these generic drivers allows for faster deployment of devices and easier installation by end-users.
Logical specifications
Functional characteristics
The USB human interface device class can be used to describe both device and interface classes. The interface class is used when a USB device can contain more than one function. It is possible, therefore, to have USB devices with two different interfaces at the same time (for example, a USB telephone may use a HID keypad and an audio speaker).
The interface devices are also defined with subclass descriptors. The subclass descriptor is used to declare a device bootable. A boot device meets a minimum adherence to a basic protocol and will be recognized by a computer's BIOS.
Each USB HID interface communicates with the host using either a control pipe or an interrupt pipe. Isochronous and bulk pipes are not used in HID class devices. Both IN and OUT...(and so on)
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The Byzantine army evolved from that of the late Roman Empire. The language of the army was still Latin (though later and especially after the 6th century Greek dominates, as Greek became the official language of the entire empire) but it became considerably more sophisticated in terms of strategy, tactics and organization. For example, the Byzantine army was the first army in the world to adopt combined arms task forces as part of its doctrine. Unlike the Roman legions, its strength was in its armoured cavalry Cataphracts, which evolved from the Clibanarii of the late empire. Infantry were still used but mainly in support roles and as a base of maneuver for the cavalry. Most of the foot-soldiers of the empire were the armoured infantry Skutatoi and later on, Kontarioi (plural of the singular Kontarios), with the remainder being the light infantry and archers of the Psiloi. Byzantine soldiers were often depicted by Westerners as effeminate and reluctant to fight but this was a false image. The Byzantines valued intelligence and discipline in their soldiers far more than bravery or brawn. The "??????? ??????????" were a loyal force composed of citizens willing to fight to defend their homes and their state to the death, augmented by mercenaries. Infantry conscription was still practiced, as in the Roman army, with every citizen eligible to serve. The training was very much like that of the legionaries, with the soldiers taught close quarters, melee techniques with their swords. But as in the late Empire, archery was extensively practised.
Contents
1 Infantry
1.1 Infantry types and equipment
1.1.1 Skoutatoi
1.1.2 Toxotai and Psiloi
1.1.3 Varangians
1.2 Infantry organization and formation
1.3 Infantry tactics and strategies
2 Cavalry
2.1 Cavalry types and equipment
2.1.1 Kataphraktoi
2.1.2 Light Cavalry
2.2 Cavalry organization and formations
2.3 Cavalry tactics and strategies
3 Byzantine Art of War
4 See also
5 References
//
Infantry
Infantry types and equipment
Skoutatoi
12th century fresco of Joshua from the monastery of Hosios Loukas. It accurately depicts the typical equipment of a heavily armed Byzantine infantryman of the 10th-12th centuries. He wears a lamellar klivanion, splinted rerebraces and pteruges and is armed with a kontarion and a spathion.
The bulk of the Byzantine infantry were the skoutatoi, named from the word skouton, for their large oval or kite-shaped shield. Their armor and weapons included:
kremasmata: A skirt hanging below a soldier's cuirass to protect his legs.
?livanion (?????????): the characteristic Byzantine lamellar cuirass, usually sleeveless. In addition, pteruges (leather hanging strips) were worn to protect shoulders and hips.
zaba (????) or l?rikion (????????): mail hauberks, usually reserved for the armoured cavalry cataphracts.
kavadion (????????) or vamvakion (?????????): A padded leather or cotton under-garment, worn under the cuirass.
epil?rikion (???????????): A padded leather or cotton over-garment, worn over the cuirass.
spathion (???????): The typical Roman spatha, a longsword (about 90 cm), double-edged and very heavy.
param?rion (??????????): a one-edged scimitar-like sword, girded at the waist.
kontarion (?????????): a long spear (about 2 to 3 m), the kontarion was used by the first ranks of each chiliarchia (battalion) in order to fend off enemy cavalry.
Helmet: the helmet varied by region and time but was generally a simple, conical-shaped piece of steel, often with extra neck protection in the form of a mail or leather aventail.
skouton (???????): a large and oval (later kite-shaped) shield made of wood, covered by leather and reinforced with steel. Each unit had different shield decoration.
Unarmoured light infantrymen, often armed with javelins, were known as in classical times as peltastoi.
Toxotai and Psiloi
The standard light infantry of the empire, in each chiliarchia they made up the last three lines. These soldiers, highly trained in the art of bow were formidable archers. Most of the Imperial archers came from Asia Minor, especially the region around Trebizond on the Black sea, where they were raised, trained and equipped.
Their arms included:
Composite bow
Kavadion
spathion or tzikourion (small axe) for self-defence.
Although military manuals prescribed the use of light armour for archers, cost and mobility considerations would have prohibited wide-scale implementation of this.
Varangians
The Varangian Guard was a foreign mercenary force and the elite of the Byzantine infantry. It was composed principally of Vikings, Nordic, Slavic and Germanic peoples, after 1066 it was increasingly English in composition. The Varangians served as the...(and so on)
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In the sport of golf, a penalty or penalty stroke is an additional stroke or strokes added to a player's score for an infraction of the rules. In match play, rather than adding strokes, the usual penalty is loss of the hole except for penalties assessed for relief from a hazard or a lost ball.
Situations in which a penalty may be assessed include, but are not limited to:
Declaring your ball unplayable in its current lie. This technically violates one of the primary rules - "Play the ball as it lies", but the rules provide for relief when a ball is in a position where the player does not wish to attempt to play it. Examples include when the ball lies among tree roots or rocks ("between a rock and a hard place"), underneath shrubbery, etc. and attempting to play it would result in damage to the club or the course. A substitute ball is dropped or placed at a penalty of one stroke.[1]
Hitting the ball into a situation where it cannot be played as it lies even if the player wishes it, such as into a water hazard (players are allowed to play the ball out of a water hazard without penalty, but it is rarely practical unless the hazard is only a few inches deep), out-of-bounds, or into an area where it becomes lost. A substitute ball is then played at a one-stroke penalty.[2][3]
Hitting the wrong ball, which is any ball other than the ball hit from the tee or dropped or placed as a substitute or provisional ball. Examples of a wrong ball are another player's ball or an abandoned ball. This is a two-stroke penalty.[4]
Picking up your ball, except under certain circumstances such as for identification, to determine if it is cut, split or otherwise unfit for play, to clear the path of another player's ball on the putting green, or to clear loose debris such as leaves or twigs from under or around it. [5]
Picking up anyone else's ball except for identification when the location of the ball in question or another in play is uncertain.[6]
* Interfering with a moving ball. Players who do this intentionally receive a two-stroke penalty.[7][8]
Playing a ball out-of-turn or while someone else's ball is in motion. Players must play their balls in the order of their distance from the hole. The only exception is on the putting green, when a fellow player's ball obstructs the current player's and the current player wishes the other player to play it rather than lift and mark it. [5][9]
Cleaning a ball while it is in play, except when the ball is on the green, for identification, or to determine if the ball is unfit for play (a ball is not unfit simply because it is dirty; however a cut or split may be hidden by dirt).[10]
Equipment violations such as too many clubs (more than 14) in a player's bag or using a ball or club of illegal design (floating/deep-dimpled balls, clubs over 48" shaft length or 460cc clubhead volume). In the case of a violation regarding clubs, the player adds two strokes for every hole of the current round played before the violation was discovered. In the case of an illegal ball, the player adds two strokes for every hole on which that ball was put in play.[11][12]
When a penalty is incurred because the ball has been lost or hit into an unplayable area, the player plays a new ball or moves the current one according to the rules governing the situation in which the substitution or placement occurs. This may be from the spot at which they hit the ball into that position (a stroke and distance penalty), a playable point directly in line with the hole and behind its current position, or in some circumstances at a point two clublengths or less and no closer to the hole from which the ball crossed the boundary of the unplayable condition. If the player elects to move an unplayable ball in a sand trap, the ball must remain in the hazard.
The penalty stroke assessed is not the stroke made on the new ball; it is counted in addition to any and all swings made at the ball. For instance, hitting a ball into a water hazard, dropping a new ball at the position from which you hit the last one, then hitting the new ball counts as three strokes, not two.
However, under certain cicumstances, in informal or friendly play, especially involving novices, the penalty stroke is not counted; the player simply drops a ball at the spot of the last hit and plays again. This is an unmitigated violation of several rules of the game which would normally call for disqualification from sanctioned play, but can help make the game more enjoyable in a friendly setting as well as increasing the pace, as it reduces searching for a ball and playing from extremely disadvantageous lies. When an errant shot is re-played from the same spot, it is called a mulligan and neither the first shot nor the penalty stroke is counted.
References
^ Rules of Golf: Rule 28
^ Rules of Golf: Rule 27
^ Rules of Golf: Rule 26-2
^ Rules...(and so on)
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